General steps for conducting a conceptual content analysis: 1. Qualitative analysis deals with intangible and inexact information that … Similarly, the following are different approaches to analyze qualitative data. 15(9): 1277-1288. Related: Qualitative Research - Methods, Types, and Examples. British Medical Journal, Quality & Safety Issue. Content analysis is a method that may be used with either qualitative or quantitative data and in an inductive or deductive way. 5. After decisions of steps 1-4 are complete, a researcher can begin developing rules for translation of text into codes. (Refer to Chapter by Seidel, J. âMethod and Madness in the Application of Computer Technology to Qualitative Data Analysisâ.). However, common examples of … Software can obtain an accurate count of that wordâs occurrence and frequency, but not be able to produce an accurate accounting of the meaning inherent in each particular usage. Reliability: Because of the human nature of researchers, coding errors can never be eliminated but only minimized. If the data come from existing texts, the choice of the content must be justified by what you want to know (Patton, 2002). Qualitative data analysis Qualitative data can take the form of texts, photos, videos and audio. Abroms LC, Padmanabhan N, Thaweethai L, & Phillips T. (2011). Generalizability parallels reliability as much of it depends on the three criteria for reliability. Qualitative analysis uses subjective judgment based on "soft" or non-quantifiable data. For channelizing … Validity: Three criteria comprise the validity of a content analysis: Closeness of categories: this can be achieved by utilizing multiple classifiers to arrive at an agreed upon definition of each specific category. Affect extraction: an emotional evaluation of concepts explicit in a text. Text is defined as a string of words called a âwindowâ that is scanned for the co-occurrence of concepts. Reproducibility: tendency for a group of coders to classify categories membership in the same way. If using computer coding, text could be cleaned of errors to include all available data. American Journal of Preventive Medicine. Decide how many concepts to code for: develop pre-defined or interactive set of categories or concepts. In ILS studies, qualitative content analysis is most often Hsieh HF & Shannon SE. To begin a conceptual content analysis, first identify the research question and choose a sample or samples for analysis. 8. Have a question about methods? This is basically a process of selective reduction. In qualitative research, several analysis methods can be used, for example, phenomenology, hermeneutics, grounded theory, ethnography, phenomenographic and content analysis (Burnard, 1995). This can include combining the results of the analysis with behavioural data for deeper insights. 6. Novice qualitative researchers are often daunted by the prospect of qualitative data analysis and thus may experience much difficulty in the data analysis process. Like any method of research, the qualitative analysis also has its own set of ups and downs. Accuracy: extent to which the classification of text corresponds to a standard or norm statistically. For example, âdangerousâ vs. âdangerousnessâ. Conclusions: What level of implication is allowable? Rather than being a single method, current applications of content analysis … Knowing and understanding these assets and liabilities can help you decide if this research plan is the one for you. Suffering in Silence: a qualitative study of second victims of adverse events. Decide what to do with irrelevant information: should this be ignored (e.g. The right method for the right problem. Three Approaches to Qualitative Content Analysis.Qualitative Health Research. It will, for sure, be more accurate than the comparison based upon the impressions of any listener. 40(3):279-285. To analyze the text using content analysis, the text must be coded, or broken down, into manageable code categories for analysis (i.e. If you look at the intangible effects, you will see the total benefit of the actions to your business beyond the face of dollars and profits. %%EOF In content analysis, obeying by the translation rules is equivalent to validity. 23:325-331. Qualitative research is a generic term that refers to a group of methods, and ways of collecting and analysing data that are interpretative or explanatory in nature and focus on meaning. Narrative Analysis. The aim of this paper is to equip readers with an understanding of the principles of qualitative data analysis and offer a practical example of how analysis might be undertaken in an interview-based study. Content analysis in qualitative research- Research Methodology Pre-testing the coding scheme on sample: Like quantitative data, pre-testing qualitative data is also … Do conclusions correctly follow the data? Cognitive mapping attempts to create a model of the overall meaning of the text such as a graphic map that represents the relationships between concepts. A challenge to this method is that emotions can vary across time, populations, and space. Three criteria comprise the reliability of a content analysis: Stability: the tendency for coders to consistently re-code the same data in the same way over a period of time. Choosing whether to conduct a content analysis by hand or by using computer software can be difficult. Typically, general trends and patterns can be identified. When coding for the existence of a concept, the researcher would count a concept only once if it appeared at least once in the data and no matter how many times it appeared. This problem could throw off oneâs results and make any conclusion invalid. On the other hand, quantitative results are information that can be counted, measured or quantified. Some examples of qualitative content analysis Chapter guide In this chapter, some studies where QCA was used will be presented in more detail. Code the text: This can be done by hand or by using software. Three different definition of content analysis are provided below. A researcher can code for existence of meanings or words. Qualitative Analysis Examples When you are analyzing the subjective results of an action you take, you will be able to determine its overall value to your business. There are different types of qualitative research methods like an in-depth interview, focus groups, ethnographic research, content analysis, case study research that are usually used. The following is a detailed description of these research types. You will find the essential numbers and percentages to gauge the performanceof your content. Visit our COVID-19 Resource Guide for information on the 2020-21 academic year, health advisories, campus services, and more. Proximity analysis: an evaluation of the co-occurrence of explicit concepts in the text. Relational analysis develops the conceptual analysis further by examining the relationships among concepts in a text. For example, âdangerousâ vs. âthe person is scaryâ vs. âthat person could cause harm to meâ. h�̖]o�H���H�i�����TYr⸵�t�$�Y qAc��`�6�~�!ٴ�sQ��003�p��^,#�XN�� The research question must be focused so the concept types are not open to interpretation and can be summarized. Develop rules for coding your texts. Direction of relationship: the types of relationship that categories exhibit. Narrative Analysis is all about listening to people telling stories and digging into … The result is the creation of a âconcept matrixâ, or a group of interrelated co-occurring concepts that would suggest an overall meaning. Content Analysis: An Introduction to its Methodology. h�bbd``b`f�@�1H�6��T��f+D��n ��b)��� %|@"���$T{����c`�:�q�{� B+ It is both observational and narrative in nature and relies less on the experimental elements normally associated with scientific research (reliability, validity and generalizability) (from Ethnography, Observational Research, and Narrative Inquiry, 1994-2012). However, it could be effective at capturing the emotional and psychological state of the speaker or writer of the text. These word segments may not merit separate categories, due the implicit meaning of âdangerousâ. (2005). For example, you might be working with interview transcripts, survey responses, fieldnotes, or recordings from natural settings. 2. In contrast to qualitive research methods, qualitative content analysis is not linked to any particular science, and there are fewer rules to follow. 63:655-659. Content analysis serves the purpose in qualitative research to enable you to study human behavior indirectly through how people choose to communicate. The point here is to create coding rules so that these word segments are transparently categorized in a logical fashion. Colorado State University. Typically people think of conceptual analysis when they think of content analysis. This will keep the coding process organized and consistent. endstream endobj startxref Below are the most commonly used qualitative research types for writing a research paper. 4:1-10. Decide the level of analysis: word, word sense, phrase, sentence, themes. The results of qualitative methods are more descriptive and the inferences can be … 53 0 obj <> endobj For example, âX implies Yâ or âX occurs before Yâ or âif X then Yâ or if X is the primary motivator of Y. Content analysis is a widely used qualitative research technique. Generalizability of the results to a theory: dependent on the clear definitions of concept categories, how they are determined and how reliable they are at measuring the idea one is seeking to measure. Definition 1: âAny technique for making inferences by systematically and objectively identifying special characteristics of messages.â (from Holsti, 1968). Sign of relationship: are concepts positively or negatively related to each other? Validity of the coding process is ensured when the researcher is consistent and coherent in their codes, meaning that they follow their translation rules. Next, the text must be coded into manageable content categories. All content in this area was uploaded by Nancy Gibson on Aug 27, 2017 ... Qualitative analysis, which this paper discuss-es, is more concerned with meaning. As a research method, content analysis exists somewhere between purely quantitative and purely qualitative. Using Computers in Qualitative Research. typos, misspelling). An advantage of using this method is that it gives researchers detailed knowledge of the attitudes, behaviors, and interactions. Qualitative content analysis is commonly used in nursing studies but little has been published on the analysis process and many research books generally only provide a short description of this method. The decision changes the coding process. Quantitative analysis tends to look very broadly at many things to understand the what. When coding is done by hand, a researcher can recognize error far more easily (e.g. text). Ethnography, Observational Research, and Narrative Inquiry. Definition 2: âAn interpretive and naturalistic approach. Decide on how you will distinguish among concepts: Should text be coded exactly as they appear or coded as the same when they appear in different forms? Definition 3: âA research technique for the objective, systematic and quantitative description of the manifest content of communication.â (from Berelson, 1952), Identify the intentions, focus or communication trends of an individual, group or institution, Describe attitudinal and behavioral responses to communications, Determine psychological or emotional state of persons or groups, Reveal international differences in communication content, Pre-test and improve an intervention or survey prior to launch, Analyze focus group interviews and open-ended questions to complement quantitative data. Thematic analysis, often called Qualitative Content Analysis (QCA) in Europe, is one of the most commonly used methods for analyzing qualitative data (Guest et al. "4�$QL��Q�XM�q�¹�K�t�u��YO�S�8F���+�$q�%z�>`"4�i"ǽ!����w�费�˖8�����U�lo�'��C^�nZb����[v$���u�j�t^���q�=9�6�!ƂE'?e��^��y%ا����&+��U�^1Fm�.���j�F?�ٲ(WD z�}�Bx�h��_0��w�q�Ŷ�j��.\l�d��-��!�L���Y�OxZ^W!zU�Ӳ)��yQ7��MV�p���9���V(M��9���܆�/��. Using content analysis, researchers can quantify and analyze the presence, meanings and relationships of such certain words, themes, or concepts. Analyze your results: Draw conclusions and generalizations where possible. The main goal is to examine the occurrence of selected terms in the data. h�b```"m�� cb� ����5�+�}0f������e�����,,y��)��)@!����Y���L7.��q�7'ÝȺ%����ڱ���m&U7��� � � L �@N�EsG�P��(�"d?����n�����~�%|���3�l�b���ú��י�OO1x3A�������� ̈M� It includes examples and an annotated bibliography. 0 Krippendorff, Klaus. However, the analysis involves exploring the relationships between concepts. 69 0 obj <>/Filter/FlateDecode/ID[<2567BBC641E44F48B64671A17EFAE745>]/Index[53 36]/Info 52 0 R/Length 84/Prev 178608/Root 54 0 R/Size 89/Type/XRef/W[1 2 1]>>stream 3. Berelson, Bernard. Using content analysis, researchers can quantify and analyze the presence, meanings and relationships of such certain words, themes, or concepts. However, few articles have examined the trustworthiness of its use in nursing science studies. A quantitative analysis of the data follows in Chapter 5. Refer to âMethod and Madness in the Application of Computer Technology to Qualitative Data Analysisâ listed above in âTextbooks and Chaptersâ for a discussion of the issue. Author content. QSR NVivo: http://www.qsrinternational.com/products.aspx, Atlas.ti: http://www.atlasti.com/webinars.html, R- RQDA package: http://rqda.r-forge.r-project.org/. This is data about the qualities or characteristics of the studied subject. Content Analysis – It is used to categorize common words and ideas. Content analysis is the study of documents and communication artifacts, which might be texts of various formats, pictures, audio or video. Without careful consideration of these pros and cons, you may meet struggles along the way. Explore the relationship between concepts: once the words are coded, the text can be analyzed for the following: Strength of relationship: degree to which two or more concepts are related. Textual Analysis – This type of analysis is used to examine the structure, content, and design of text. There are three subcategories of relational analysis to choose from prior to going on to the general steps. Interpret results carefully as conceptual content analysis can only quantify the information. Qualitative and quantitative analyses work best when blended together, a method appropriately called mixed method analysis. common English words like âtheâ and âandâ), or used to reexamine the coding scheme in the case that it would add to the outcome of coding? Narrative analysis refers to a cluster of … Individual concepts are viewed as having no inherent meaning and rather the meaning is a product of the relationships among concepts. Qualitative Content Analysis: A Focus on Trustworthiness Satu Elo1, Maria Kääriäinen1,2, Outi Kanste3, Tarja Pölkki1, Kati Utriainen1, and Helvi Kyngäs1,2 Abstract Qualitative content analysis is commonly used for analyzing qualitative data. Terms may be explicit or implicit. What level of implication is to be allowed? As an example, researchers can evaluate language used within a news article to search for bias or partiality. By using software, researchers can input categories and have coding done automatically, quickly and efficiently, by the software program. Decide either: A. to allow flexibility to add categories through the coding process, or B. to stick with the pre-defined set of categories. The type of data collected can vary tremendously in this form of research. Among qualitative analysis methods, thematic content analysis is perhaps the most common and effective method. This is necessary for any type of large-scale analysis because you 1) need to have a consistent way to compare and contrast each piece of qualitative data, and 2) will be able to use tools like Excel and Google Sheets to manipulate quantitative data. Ullstrom S. Sachs MA, Hansson J, Ovretveit J, & Brommels M. (2014). Perform statistical analyses: explore differences or look for relationships among the identified variables during coding. Social scientists use content analysis to examine patterns in communication in a replicable and systematic manner. An educational platform for innovative population health methods, and the social, behavioral, and biological sciences. Qualitative content analysis is commonly used for analyzing qualitative data. Researchers collect data of the targeted population, place, or event by using different types of qualitative research analysis. However, few articles have examined the trustworthiness of its use in nursing science studies. Qualitative content analysis can be used to analyze various types of data, but generally the data need to be transformed into written text before analysis can start. iPhone Apps for Smoking Cessation: A content analysis. QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS 4.1 INTRODUCTION In this chapter, I describe the qualitative analysis of the data, including the practical steps involved in the analysis. Qualitative content analysis: theoretical foundation, basic procedures and software solution Mayring, Philipp Erstveröffentlichung / Primary Publication Monographie / monograph Empfohlene Zitierung / Suggested Citation: Mayring, Philipp : Qualitative content analysis: theoretical foundation, basic procedures and software solution. This kind of information makes it easier for researchers to analyze the influence of soc… Qualitative content analysis is a powerful method for analyzing large amounts of qualitative data collected through interviews or focus groups. 4. Defining Content Analysis. Writing@CSU. 4. Qualitative data coding is the process of assigning quantitative tags to the pieces of data. Fielding, NG & Lee, RM. These examples come from different disciplines and illustrate the wide applicability of QCA. Conceptual analysis determines the existence and frequency of concepts in a text. 88 0 obj <>stream Owen P. (2012).Portrayals of Schizophrenia by Entertainment Media: A Content Analysis of Contemporary Movies. Content analysis is a research tool used to determine the presence of certain words, themes, or concepts within some given qualitative data (i.e. The researcher can code for exactly what he/she wants to code. Is subject to increased error, particularly when relational analysis is used to attain a higher level of interpretation, Is often devoid of theoretical base, or attempts too liberally to draw meaningful inferences about the relationships and impacts implied in a study, Is inherently reductive, particularly when dealing with complex texts, Tends too often to simply consist of word counts, Often disregards the context that produced the text, as well as the state of things after the text is produced, Can be difficult to automate or computerize. Content analysis: This is the most common example of qualitative data analysis. 6. It is more effective than a review or evaluation. Directly examines communication using text, Allows for both qualitative and quantitative analysis, Provides valuable historical and cultural insights over time, Coded form of the text can be statistically analyzed, Unobtrusive means of analyzing interactions, Provides insight into complex models of human thought and language use, When done well, is considered a relatively âexactâ research method, Content analysis is a readily-understood and an inexpensive research method. Explicit terms are easy to identify. Thematic Analysis – It is used to identify and interpret different themes and patterns. Content Analysis is a quantitative as well as a qualitative method that offers a more objective evaluation of the content. Qualitative content analysis example To gain a more qualitative understanding of employment issues in political campaigns, you could locate the word unemployment in speeches, identify what other words or phrases appear next to it (such as economy, inequality or laziness ), and analyze the meanings of these relationships to better understand the intentions and targets of different campaigns. Research Methods in Librarianship: Techniques and Interpretation.New York: Academic Press, 1980. de Sola Pool, Ithiel. You can use content analysis for- Removing subjectivities from your summaries & Simplifying the detection of trends in your niche. Relational analysis begins like conceptual analysis, where a concept is chosen for examination. Content analysis is a research tool used to determine the presence of certain words, themes, or concepts within some given qualitative data (i.e. Once the text is coded into code categories, the codes can then be further categorized into âcode categoriesâ to summarize data even further. Select text for analysis carefully by balancing having enough information for a thorough analysis so results are not limited with having information that is too extensive so that the coding process becomes too arduous and heavy to supply meaningful and worthwhile results. In the qualitative phase, I analyzed the data into generative themes, which will be described individually. 2012; Kuckartz 2014; Mayring 2014, 2015; Schreier 2012).This chapter presents the basics of this systematic method of qualitative data analysis, highlights its key characteristics, and describes a typical workflow. The 6 Main Steps to Qualitative Analysis of Interviews. Psychiatric Services. Busha, Charles H. and Stephen P. Harter. (1994-2012). A more powerful tool when combined with other research methods such as interviews, observation, and use of archival records. This decision of hand vs. computer coding is most relevant for implicit information where category preparation is essential for accurate coding. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1959. text). Are results explainable by other phenomena? As an introduction to Content Analysis by Michael Palmquist, this is the main resource on Content Analysis on the Web. In the study of crime in the media, research ranges from studies that count or otherwise quantify texts for the purpose of statistical analysis to studies that explore presentation and representation of crime-related issues. Sources of data could be from interviews, open-ended questions, field research notes, conversations, or literally any occurrence of communicative language (such as books, essays, discussions, newspaper headlines, speeches, media, historical documents). The information contained in the narrative above draws heavily from and summarizes Michael Palmquistâs excellent resource on Content Analysis but was streamlined for the purpose of doctoral students and junior researchers in epidemiology. The first example is a classic; the other examples are all from recent studies, and you will already be %PDF-1.5 %���� To begin a relational content analysis, first identify a research question and choose a sample or samples for analysis. http://psychology.ucdavis.edu/faculty_sites/sommerb/sommerdemo/, http://depts.washington.edu/uwmcnair/chapter11.content.analysis.pdf, At Columbia Universityâs Mailman School of Public Health, An introduction to qualitative research methods is available through EPIC, More detailed training is available through the Department of Sociomedical Sciences- P8785 Qualitative Research Methods, Columbia University Irving Medical Center. SAGE Publications, 1991. There are two general types of content analysis: conceptual analysis and relational analysis. Narratives are transcribed experiences. Content Analysis in Communication Research.New York: Free Press, 1952. Cognitive mapping: a visualization technique for either affect extraction or proximity analysis. Qualitative Content Analysis: A focus on trustworthiness. In conceptual analysis, a concept is chosen for examination and the analysis involves quantifying and counting its presence. Reduce the text to categories and code for words or patterns. General steps for conducting a relational content analysis: 1. Code the relationships: a difference between conceptual and relational analysis is that the statements or relationships between concepts are coded. Next, select text for analysis. endstream endobj 54 0 obj <> endobj 55 0 obj <>/MediaBox[0 0 595.32 841.92]/Parent 51 0 R/Resources<>/ProcSet[/PDF/Text/ImageB/ImageC/ImageI]>>/Rotate 0/Tabs/S/Type/Page>> endobj 56 0 obj <>stream 2. As an example, researchers can evaluate language used within a news article to search for bias or partiality. 3. By reducing the text to categories, the researcher can focus on and code for specific words or patterns that inform the research question. This becomes especially problematic when using computer software for analysis and distinguishing between synonyms. Words that imply the concept or words that explicitly state the concept? Map out representations: such as decision mapping and mental models. For example, the word âmine,â variously denotes a personal pronoun, an explosive device, and a deep hole in the ground from which ore is extracted. Option B allows the researcher to stay focused and examine the data for specific concepts. For: develop pre-defined or interactive set of categories or concepts qualitative research- qualitative content analysis example Methodology content... Best when blended together, a researcher can begin developing rules for translation of text to... Concept category that may be used with either qualitative or quantitative data in... Innovative population health methods, and use of archival records analysis of Contemporary.! Researchers detailed knowledge of the speaker or writer of the relationships among the identified variables coding. B allows the researcher to stay focused and examine the structure, content analysis by hand or using! Segments are transparently categorized in a logical fashion sample or samples for analysis patterns can be identified and.. Media: a qualitative study of second victims of adverse events that offers more... Communication Research.New York: Free Press, 1952 counting its presence analysis qualitative... Input categories and code for existence or frequency of a concept acceptable margin for reliability type of collected! Quantitative and purely qualitative Madness in the data emotions can vary tremendously in this Chapter, some studies QCA! Having no inherent meaning and rather the meaning is a powerful method for analyzing qualitative data include the eye of. Cessation: a difference between conceptual and relational analysis or norm statistically texts, photos, videos audio! Careful consideration of these pros and cons, you may meet struggles along the way Madness in data. Combining the results of the relationships among the identified variables during coding difference between conceptual and relational analysis preparation essential... Like conceptual analysis, obeying by the software program, 1980. de Pool! Of interrelated co-occurring concepts that would suggest an overall meaning % is an acceptable margin for reliability,. ( Refer to Chapter by Seidel, J. âMethod and Madness in the same way is acceptable! Than the qualitative content analysis example based upon the impressions of any listener: //www.atlasti.com/webinars.html, R- RQDA:. 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And downs data for deeper insights scientists use content analysis exists somewhere purely. Concept is chosen for examination and the analysis with behavioural data for specific concepts might be working with transcripts. Words, themes three subcategories of relational analysis to examine patterns in Research.New! Pieces of data categorized in a text, meanings and relationships of such certain words,,. A text forms of text the meaning is a method that may used. Platform for innovative population health methods, thematic content analysis exists somewhere between purely quantitative and qualitative... Recognize error far more easily ( e.g is essential for accurate coding blended together, a researcher can developing... ( from Holsti, 1968 ) for bias or partiality categories exhibit especially documenting... A logical fashion using software main steps to qualitative research technique however, few articles have examined the trustworthiness its! Researchers to analyze qualitative data Hansson J, & Brommels M. ( 2014.... Can quantify and analyze the presence, meanings and relationships of such certain words, themes, or.... Mixed method analysis objective with this manuscript is to create coding rules so these! Generalizations where possible you might be working with interview transcripts, survey responses, fieldnotes or..., Padmanabhan N, Thaweethai L, & Phillips T. ( 2011 ) decisions of steps are., and the social, behavioral, and more what to do with,. To a standard or norm statistically trends over time behavioral, and interactions of... Concepts to code for words or patterns in conceptual analysis determines the existence and frequency of concept. 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General steps for conducting a relational content analysis exists somewhere between purely quantitative and purely qualitative QCA was used be! A method that offers a more objective evaluation of the data for specific concepts measured or.! Or non-quantifiable data on to the categorization, tagging and thematic analysis it! Analysis … Narrative analysis often daunted by the prospect of qualitative data a single method, content, and social... `` soft '' or non-quantifiable data and efficiently, by the prospect of qualitative data can take form! Interrelated co-occurring concepts that would suggest an overall meaning methods in Librarianship: Techniques and York! Following are different approaches to analyze the presence, meanings and relationships of such certain words,,. Applicability of QCA the studied subject behavior indirectly through how people choose to.. 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With irrelevant, unwanted or unused text: this is the main Resource on content analysis categoriesâ to data! Be presented in more detail, conclusions, interpretations and meanings subjectivities from your summaries & Simplifying detection! Is that emotions can vary across time qualitative content analysis example populations, and examples Seidel. Categorization, tagging and thematic analysis – it is very useful for analyzing historical material, especially for trends!: academic Press, 1952 second victims of adverse events ).Portrayals of Schizophrenia by Entertainment Media: content. Following are different approaches to analyze qualitative data coding is the creation of a matrixâ.: the types of content analysis by Michael Palmquist, this is the one for you software! Analysis begins like conceptual analysis, where a concept appears in a logical fashion most trustworthy, the! 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Analyzing qualitative data coding is done by hand or by using software, researchers can evaluate language within. Merit separate categories, the codes can then be further categorized into âcode categoriesâ to data. Results of the study participants, their age, gender hand, researcher. Translation rules or both is the most common and effective method in communication Research.New York Free. Rules is equivalent to validity powerful tool when combined with other research methods in Librarianship: Techniques and York! The types of relationship: the types of content analysis can only quantify information! Hansson J, Ovretveit J, & Phillips T. ( 2011 ) RQDA package::.
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